While building the societies of Purovous, I’ve endeavored to be as faithful as possible to the historical Iron Age societies of the Old World. I think historical accuracy is important even when constructing fantasy settings because it provides a sense of congruency and depth that is difficult to produce ex nihilo. I’ve done quite a bit of research to benefit my books, and now wish to pass that accumulated knowledge along. I hope that this will be the first in a series of posts on life in Iron Age Europe. I’d like to begin the series with the foundation of all Iron Age life: agriculture.
Agriculture first came to northern Europe in the Neolithic, and was a major part of what is often termed the “Neolithic Revolution”, a period of technological innovation that changed people’s lives as thoroughly as the Industrial Revolution. The most important crops to early farmers were grains and legumes. Grains such as wheat, barely, rye, and oats served as the primary source of energy through carbohydrates. In the colder climate of Northern Europe, barely, rye, and oats grew better than wheat, and became the more common cereals. Legumes were an important source of protein for the sedentary farmers, for whom hunting would become a more supplemental activity. Legumes also have the added benefit of fixing nitrogen in the soil, an essential nutrient for plant growth. Crop rotation was understood and implemented from the earliest days of agriculture, ensuring that the soil wasn’t leached of its essential nutrients. The most popular legumes among the earliest farmers were peas, lentils, chickpeas, bitter vetch, and broad beans. Flax and cotton were important plants for fiber production, though cotton wasn’t successfully cultivated in Northern Europe. Flax was used to produce linen and flaxseeds were consumed.
Vegetables were eaten by Northern Europeans prior to the advent of agriculture, and they continued to be consumed after its arrival. Leeks, onions, and garlic were easy to grow and flavorful. Parsnips were native to Northern Europe and carrots would have been quickly imported from the Middle East. Asparagus and beets would have been available early on, though lettuces didn’t appear in Europe until the Iron Age itself. Various species of the Brassica genus were domesticated across Eurasia, which have produced the modern cabbages, cauliflower, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, mustard seed, rapeseed, kale, collard greens, rutabagas, turnips, and kohlrabi. It’s unlikely that the ancient Brassica varieties closely resembled those that we know today, but it is certain that Brassica plants have been cultivated for a long time. Specifically, Brassica oleracea, the ancestor of the cabbage, was a salt-tolerant wild vegetable that grew on the rocky cliffs of damp, coastal areas. The plant’s tolerance of salt, cold, and poor soils made it an important vegetable in Northern Europe.
In addition to the domestication of plants, the Neolithic saw the domestication and proliferation of several animal species. Cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs would have all been available during the Iron Age. Ancient farmers would have relied on straw, bitter vetch, and wild forage to feed their livestock. Milk was collected from cattle, sheep, and goats, and would have been used for the production of various dairy products. Milk was drunk straight or used as a common additive in cooking. Butter, yoghurt, creams, and cheeses were common staples. Custards would have also been prepared. Meat was considered a luxury, and would have been sparse in the diet of the poor. Almost any animal, domestic or wild, would have been butchered for meat. Since meat spoils readily and refrigeration was unavailable, salting, drying, or smoking meat was common.
There were several kinds of poultry available to Northern Europeans, including domestic chickens, geese, and ducks. Eggs would have been an important source of protein and cholesterol, while male birds would have been more ready sources of meat than cattle or pigs. Wild pigeons, ptarmigans, partridges, quail, geese, and ducks would have also been hunted and eaten.
Horses would have been available during the Iron Age, but would have been different from the breeds of which we commonly think. The quarter-horse, thoroughbred, and Arabian breeds would not have been present in Europe during this period. The riding horses of Northern Europe at this time would have been short, stocky, and shaggy. Horses were used for riding, hauling, and plowing. It’s likely that even from the first stages of domestication horses were divided into heavy and light breed-stock, so that the horses meant to plow or pull heavy loads were larger and more subdued than those meant for riding.
Irrigation has been used since the earliest days of agriculture, and would have been used to supplement seasonal rains. Canals were a simple way to divert water from rivers, springs, and lakes, but more advanced technologies like aqueducts, cisterns, and piping were also used. The sickle was the primary way of reaping cereal crops. The scythe is an ancient tool, but was primarily used for mowing and didn’t replace the sickle as the main tool for reaping until the 1600s. Hoes, shovels, pickaxes, adzes, and axes were all common hand tools on the ancient farm. Plows have been drawn by draft animals since the domestication of oxen, but were primarily made of wood so that the runner could be easily lifted. When runners were replaced with wheels in the 3rd century AD, it became common for plows to be made from cast iron. The heavier, more durable, iron plows allowed for the cultivation of heavier soils in Northern Europe, vastly increasing the amount of arable land.
Next week, I’ll cover how Northern Europeans cooked these foods, the spices they used, and some popular meals they prepared.