Continuing our series on daily life in Iron Age Europe, I’d like to discuss textiles and clothing. The most abundant fiber in Europe would have been wool, followed by linen. Sheep are hardy ruminants that are still kept from Greece to Iceland. They can graze on poor quality forage, produce a fleece of wool one to two times a year, and can also be used for meat. Shears were likely invented in the Iron Age, prior to which the wool would have been harvested by hand plucking or using bronze combs. Weaving was the most common form of wool textile production, though felting would have been used as well. Although knitting was known to the Egyptians in the 11th century, it was unknown in Europe until the Middle Ages. Nålebinding is a sewing technique that produces a fabric similar to knitting, but would have been available to Iron Age Europeans. Crocheted fabrics don’t appear in Europe until the 19th century. Linen is produced from the fibrous stalk of the flax plant, and forms a cool, lightweight textile when woven. Nettles can also be used in a similar fashion as flax, although it produces a coarser fabric. Leather was another important material for clothing, although it isn’t technically considered a textile. Silk was available as an import from Asia for the very rich.
I’d like to briefly trace the production of a piece of wool clothing from the sheep to the final product to demonstrate the complexity and labor involved in the process. First, the sheep are sheared, which is a process whereby the wool of the sheep is cut and removed. A skillful shearer is careful to preserve the length of the wool hairs, as longer strands produce finer fabrics. The fleece must then be washed to remove dirt, debris, and fecal matter. This may be done in warm water with or without soap. If soap is used to wash the fleece, it may remove the lanolin, a greasy substance that waterproofs the fiber. If the bath used to wash the fleece is too hot, or the wool is agitated too much while washing, the fibers may mesh together to make felt.
Once the fleece has been cleaned, the wool is combed to align the fibers in the same direction. The combed wool is then spun into yarn using a drop spindle. A drop spindle is essentially a stick with a circular weight at one end that aids in the twisting of fibers together. After being twisted once, two strands must be counter-twisted together to form yarn. The spinning wheel didn’t arrive in Europe until the 13th century, so the drop spindle would have been the dominant technology used in the Iron Age. Once the yarn has been formed it must be woven into a textile. From the Bronze Age through the Iron Age, a warp-weighted loom would have been used for weaving. Warp-weighted looms are vertical frames that separate the warp strands of yarn so that the weft strands can be woven in between. They’re called “warp-weighted” because the bottom of the warp strands are were weighted to keep them taught. Once a wool fabric has been created, it may be dyed with various naturally occurring substances such as ochre or woad. The fabric would then have been hand-sewn into a piece of clothing.
The process of producing textiles for clothing was a massive industry in the ancient world. Sheep drove the economies of whole regions, and most members of society would have been involved in fabric production in one way or another. Men and boys were shepherds and sheared the sheep, while women, children, and slaves would spin and weave the wool into cloth.
The fashions of various Iron Age societies differed greatly, although the expansion of the Roman Empire saw a melting of clothing styles. Tunics became the most popular top in Europe, although the exact details differed. The Greeks wore tunics that fastened at the shoulder, while Celtic and Germanic peoples wore pull-over tunics. The Celts were famous for wearing brightly colored and embroidered tunics, but they weren’t the only ones. The Greeks also liked to dye their tunics bright colors while the romans used colored stripes and embroidery as a sign of class. Southern Europeans used short-sleeved tunics, while Northern Europeans wore both short and long-sleeved varieties. The length of the tunic hem also varied. Women and sedentary classes wore their tunics long, down to the ankle, while people who were more active usually went for a mid-thigh to knee length.
Though the tunic was practically mandatory during the Iron Age (apart from some aristocratic use of the toga among Romans), pants were far more optional. The most popular pants in the Iron Age were the braccae, a Celtic invention that was also in vogue with Germanic peoples. Braccae were loose-fitting wool trousers with a drawstring around the waist and leg lengths anywhere from just above the knee to the ankle. Those that wore longer tunics, such as the Romans, didn’t really understand the need for pants until they experienced the winters of Northern Europe.
The Greeks famously disdained using any kind of footwear, with Alexander the Great conquering the known world with barefoot armies. The Romans, however, liked their shoes, as did Northern Europeans. Shoes in the ancient world were all pretty open and sandal-like. The sturdier varieties had leather soles, sometimes hobnailed for traction and durability. Even the “boot” of the day, the Roman caliga, had an open construction though they did have decent ankle-support. As far as I know, closed shoe construction didn’t really come about in Europe until the turn shoe of the Middle Ages.
Cloaks were the winter wear of the day in Europe and had a fairly standard appearance, which differed slightly from what most of us would imagine. Cloaks in the Iron Age were essentially just large rectangular piece of wool cloth that was wrapped around the body. The cloak could have been fastened with a fibular or penannular brooch, which replaced the more archaic cloak pins. These brooches often became highly ornamented while retaining their function, but I’ll leave a detailed discussion of personal adornment for a later time. Next week, I think I’ll dive into jewelry, hygiene, makeup, and tattoos.