Continuing our series on life in Iron Age Europe, I’d like to discuss how people adorned themselves with tattoos and jewelry, and their hygienic practices. Tattooing is a very ancient practice that probably occurred as far back as the Paleolithic and has continued into the modern era. The most concrete proof of early tattooing in Europe is given by Otzi the Iceman, a mummified body that was discovered preserved in a glacier in the Austrian Alps that dates from the late 4th millennium BC (Chalcolithic). Otzi had a total of sixty-one tattoos that used a carbon-based ink and consisted of simple dots and lines. The tattoos were located on Otzi’s lower back, knees, ankle, and wrist. Radiological examination of these joints has revealed that they were degenerating during Otzi’s life, probably as a result of age and strain. The tattoos may have therefore been some kind of pain relief method, or similar healing practice.
The ancient Greeks and Romans used tattooing for the marking of criminals and slaves, while the later Roman Empire used tattoos for identifying soldiers. Neither culture was known to use tattoos decoratively. The Picts, a Celtic people of Northern Britain, were called “the painted people” by the Romans, which some understand to mean that that they bore tattoos. However, the Gaelic and Brythonic neighbors of the Picts have no record of tattooing among them. Since variations of “pict” occur in almost all languages that came in contact with that people, it’s possible that the term is related to a root in the Pictish language. In that case, the Romans may have misinterpreted the name to mean that the picts were “painted”. To further muddle the issue, Julius Caesar remarks that the Celtic Britons colored their bodies with blue “vitrum”. It’s likely that this was a form of war paint, rather than permanent tattooing. The word “vitrum” literally means “glass” in Latin, but may also be interpreted as meaning “woad”, a plant that produces a blue dye. Woad doesn’t work well for tattooing; it’s caustic nature results in more scarring than a tattoo, but it may have been used for paint. Alternatively, Caesar may have been referring to a different blue dye, such as can be made from various copper minerals.
Iron Age jewelry is a massively broad subject informed by hoards of beautiful objects that have been discovered. You owe it to yourself to search for images of these treasures, or see them in person if you’re at all able. Torcs were a favorite adornment of the Celts; a torc is a metal neck ring that opens at the front and probably would have been worn by all high-ranking members of society. Most torcs that have been discovered were made of gold or bronze, although there are examples in silver and iron. Torcs were often made of twisted wire with highly decorated terminals, although there are massive variations in form. Some torcs seem to have been made with nearly permanent use in mind, as they would have been extremely difficult to remove. Bracelets were also very common among the Celts, and were made in styles similar to torcs. Armlets, anklets, and amulets were also worn, but finger rings were more rare among the Celts.
The Romans enjoyed wearing jewelry made from gemstones and glass in addition to metalwork. Amethyst, emerald, and pearl were especially loved by Roman women. The lower classes would have worn jewelry made from iron or bronze, while the upper classes wore more jewelry made of silver and gold. The Romans mass-produced jewelry, using molds to make the process of creation cheaper, and it was therefore more readily available. Women generally wore more jewelry than men, and had their ears pierced for wearing earrings. Roman women also wore necklaces, finger rings, bracelets, and brooches. Men would generally restrain themselves to brooches and finger rings, but both genders would wear multiple pieces of jewelry at once.
The fibula brooch was an extremely common item during the Iron Age in Europe, worn by both genders and members of every social class. In form and function, the brooch resembles a modern safety pin, but they could be extremely ornamented. The first fibulae were worn in the Bronze Age by the Mycenaeans in Greece, and various styles developed around the Mediterranean. During the early Iron Age, the Celts began using fibulae and creating their own designs. In the Celtic La Tene period, the first animal designs appear. With the spread of the Roman Empire, fibulae grew both in number and variations of design. Germanic designs began appearing in the late 1st century AD. Penannular brooches were a type of fibular brooch that consisted of a pin and a torc shape that were first used in the Iron Age, and were commonly made out of cheap metals for utilitarian use. In the post-Roman period, penannular brooches became highly ornamented. The fanciest brooches were made with silver or gold, were inlaid with gemstones, and decorated with intricate patterns.
It’s surprisingly difficult to find details on personal hygiene in the ancient world, outside of the Romans. We know that the Greeks used small bathtubs, while the Romans had a massive bathing culture. Baths were a public service in almost every ancient Roman settlement, even as far from the capital as Britain. Romans would move between cool, warm, and hot baths as a part of the bathing process. They would oil themselves and scrape away the excess with a small spatula called a strigil. There were separate baths for men and women, though the bathing was done in groups. Romans didn’t use soap on their bodies, but Celtic and Germanic peoples did. The soaps used by the Gauls were much milder than Roman soaps, but never replaced the oil and strigil in Roman society even after their discovery. Celtic and Germanic peoples were also recorded as using soap on their hair specifically, both men and women. Combs and hairbrushes would have been used by every European society and varied from practical tools to ornamented status symbols. Using fine-toothed combs would have been an effective method for removing lice, as well as useful for styling the hair. Finger nail clippers hadn’t been invented yet, but knives specifically intended for nail trimming were a common part of Celtic hygiene kits. Razors have been used throughout human history, first made of stone, and later wrought from metal. The popularity of razors varied with the fashions of the day. Shears have been used since the bronze age, while scissors of the modern style were invented by the Romans around 100 AD. The first mirrors were made of obsidian, with polished stone, copper, bronze, and speculum, and iron following. The first glass mirrors were backed with lead or gold in the first century AD, and were extremely delicate and costly. Mirrors made of metal alone remained the most popular option until the late 19th century.
Perfumery is a practice as old as civilization; it began in ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and possibly China. The Greeks also used perfumes and the Romans later refined the process of creating them. It seems that the process of distillation was first used for the production of perfumes, and was only later used to produce hard alcohols. Given the level of pottery work or glasswork needed to distill, I think it’s unlikely that Celtic or Germanic peoples created what we think of as traditional perfumes. However, the ultra-rich may have been able to procure perfumes through trade with the Mediterranean world.